“The French Fur Trader” (Early Modern Period, 1650-1750 CE)
The third world traveler of this project is a Frenchman involved in the rich business of fur trading from North America to Europe and Russia during the 17th and 18th centuries. His story begins in the mid-1600s, years after the Thirty Years’ War ended in 1648. At this time, France operated as an absolute monarchy with Louis XIV, known as the ‘Sun King,’ as its ruler from 1643 to 1715. The monarch’s absolute power led to regulation of all aspects of French life, including publishing and regulated trade privileges, permission to hold most jobs, as well as tax exemptions. Although the monarchy held absolute power, it did not possess complete control. To Louis XIV’s dismay, disturbances, criticisms, and secret Protestant services occurred regularly. In addition to his political and economic power, he also wished to influence culture, art, and architecture. The cultural and artistic style at this time was Baroque, an originally Italian style which was adopted by Louis XIV to reshape the French culture. Although there are several distinct Baroque styles, Louis XIV focused on the “Classical Baroque” form that “grew from the rounded forms of art and architecture.” This style can be seen in the intricate architecture of Versailles: Louis XIV’s chateau and a hub for French fashion.
The clothing of this period was largely influenced by the Baroque art style with a focus on flow, natural silhouettes, and comfort. French clothing became popular across Europe as they exported domestically made silk throughout the continent. However, as the middle class grew and more people could afford luxurious fashion, the upper class desperately attempted to distinguish their clothes from those of the common people. Louis XIV is often depicted sporting several layers with intricately embroidered silk designs. This flamboyant dress was common in French courts where “good taste was swamped by the desire for magnificence,” but the common and humble man maintained the “cavalier” style that emerged at the beginning of the Baroque period. The cavalier style was characterized by a doublet (snug jacket), wide pants, knee length boots, and a wide-brimmed Rubens hat. The “tricorne” style of hat, distinguished by its three corners, broad brim, and plumes, was also popular through the 18th century. Higher end fabrics included silk, satin, velvet, and lace whereas the middle and lower classes wore wool and linen. High-heeled boots, which originated in Safavid Iran became common in this period as well, emerging as a fashion item from its initial utilitarian use as a feature for horseback riding. Louis XIV’s grooming habits set the standard for French men. He donned long hair, including a naturally colored wig, and a clean-shaven face. In addition to our French fur trader’s doublet, pants, boots, and hairstyle, he also carries a steel sword for his self-defense.
During this era, many European countries made efforts to colonize foreign lands and take advantage of their natural resources. Merchant companies from England, France, and Holland were given monopolies on trade and settlement in the American continents by their respective governments. Although the Dutch and British focused largely on commerce and establishing farms, respectively, the French became heavily involved with the trading of furs. While the English focused on the removal of Native American peoples, the French focused more on their cooperation with them, despite claiming a large portion of American land as their own. This French-claimed territory, called Louisiana, encompassed the middle of the modern-day United States as well as the eastern Canadian coast, including Quebec. To peacefully cooperate and trade with the American people, the French participated in cultural norms including gift giving and diplomatic rituals. Traditionally, many indigenous groups understood an important relationship between man and nature, using their resources wisely and refusing to overhunt. However, when the Europeans introduced guns and alcohol to the Americans in exchange for furs, they hunted more widely to trade for these commodities. By far, the most common fur obtained in North America was beaver.
The Native Americans with whom the French traded the most were the Algonquin people. The Algonquins lived in Quebec and Ontario, on both sides of the Ottawa River and had some nomadic practices traveling on foot or by canoe “in search of food from hunting, trapping, fishing, and gathering.” ‘Algonquin’ should not be confused with ‘Algonquian.’ Algonquian refers to a linguistic group that encompasses many Native American peoples, including the Algonquin. In the early 17th century, the Algonquin people were at war with the Iroquois Confederacy which was made up of several different Native American groups referred to as the Six Nations. The Algonquins, allied with the Montagnais and Hurons, requested French military assistance in return for access to northern trading posts. After decades of war, resulting largely in Iroquois success, the French and Algonquins continued to trade through the 1650s and 1660s. They conducted this trade despite the danger that the Iroquois posed to the Algonquins in their travels to Montreal with their furs. This state of French and Algonquin fear was followed by French attacks on Iroquois land, resulting in an enduring peace between the American rivals starting in 1667.
In our fur trader’s travels to North America and through his experience with the Algonquin natives, he likely picked up clothing or accessories made by the people he was trading with. Algonquin clothing for both men and women is recorded as being intricately decorated with small beads called wampum. Wampum were constructed as necklaces, chains, and belts worn outside the Algonquins’ robes. Our traveler is adorned with a wampum belt featuring a depiction of an axe based on an Algonquin artifact from 1671 found in Quebec. The purple beads are made of clam shells and the white beads are made from whelk shells. This is traditionally a ceremonial item, which indicates that our traveler has immersed himself in the Algonquin culture. Aside from the wampum ornamentation, Algonquin clothing was typically made from animal skins. Some clothing items, including outerwear and moccasins, were “soaked in eel oil to waterproof” them. The American eel or “Pimisi” was crucial to the Algoquins for food, medicine, and other materials. Additionally, they used beaver for small items such as gloves and hats.
One of the largest markets for the North American beaver furs was in the Russian Empire. At this time, the Russian Empire had expanded to be one of the largest territories in the world. This empire, ruled by Tsar Peter the Great, of the House of Romanov, originated as the principality of Moscow, also known as Muscovy. By the end of the 17th century, Muscovy had grown to span from the edge of Poland and the Caucasus Mountains across northern Asia to the Pacific Ocean. This expansion included Siberia, a massive region of northern Asia, full of animals used in the fur trade.
During this time, the fur trade spanned across much of the northern hemisphere. This trade originated with the hunting of beavers in North America, continued with the Native Americans’ trading with French merchants and exporting them to European countries, and ended in exchange with Russians. The Russians, however, were able to use the furs unlike anyone else. Their “trade secret” involved separating the two coats of the beaver. They combed out the thick undercoat that kept the animal warm, leaving only the long soft “guard hairs” on the pelt. This combed fur became far more valuable than the natural furs that originally came from America. The undercoat did not go to waste, though. The Russians developed “beaver wool” made of the barbed hairs of the undercoat that were cohesive and durable. Russians also dealt in sable and reddish-brown fox pelts in the fur trade. Our traveler is wearing a cap featuring combed beaver fur based on the style that Russian troops wore around this time.